Swimming Bio Mechanics Essays - Aerodynamics, Fluid Dynamics

Swimming Bio Mechanics Natural forces affect the movements of swimmers in water. And it is often useful to know how these forces act. This knowledge will help swimming teachers and coaches analyze swimming skills and assist them to understand how these forces influence movement, so that they can encourage beginners to be better swimmers or good swimmers to achieve there optimum potential. Biomechanics is the branch of science that is concerned with understanding the relationship between a living body's structure and function relative to movement. In this paper the swimming form of the front crawl stroke will be analyzed, which may result in improvement in the following areas: ? Improving performance ? Preventing injury ? Correcting weaknesses ? Identifying ways to alter human movement patterns Biomechanics is considered to be the physics of how the body moves. When these physical principles are applied to sports skills it becomes an integrated study between the internal forces produced by the body and the naturally occurring external forces that act on the body as skills are executed (Carr, 1997, p4.). Although the final quality of movement will totally depend upon the athlete's (swimmer's) ability to integrate both internal forces generated by muscular actions with the external forces of gravity, buoyancy, fiction and mass that are present during swimming. When looking at swimming one must first look at how the human body acts and generates forces in water. Water is a unique environment. It possesses qualities that will assist the swimmer, but it also has qualities that will impede the swimmer's progress through the water. For instance, the water's density provides a buoyant force for the swimmer, while at the same time providing resistance to the swimmers propulsion (, 1995, p42). Topics to continue with: Main principles and their application Density Water Resistance Skin/Frictional Resistance Frontal/Wave Resistance Eddy/Turbulence Resistance Propulsion Water Friction Propulsive Drag Lift Force Streamlining The main principles and their application of the front crawl stoke Buoyancy & Flotation An object that is immersed either totally or partially in water experiences an upward force as the water's density endeavors to stop it from sinking (Maglischo, 1982). This upward force is known as the buoyant force and acts through the center of the displaced water. This force therefore, tends to counteract the effect of gravity and the weight of the object, the net result being that the weight of the object is reduced by the upward force of buoyancy (Costill, 1992). (#Diagram#) Every object has an absolute center position where all forces exerted by the body equal zero. This central point of an object's mass is known as the center of gravity and is the point around which it balances. The center of gravity is approximately 50-52% of an individuals height, as there is an equal spread of mass above and below this point (Allen, 1999). The same can be said for the center of buoyancy, as above and below this point there is an equal spread of volume of the displaced water (Allen, 1999). The location of the center of buoyancy which is the center of the water displaced by the body, is actually closer to the head than in the location of the center of gravity. The reasons for this are: ? The volume of water displaced has a greater mass then the chest area. ? The chest has a lower density than the water because of its lung capacity. Therefore the upward force of buoyancy acts thought a point higher up the body than the center of gravity (Costill, 1992). (#Diagram#) (I may need to include more?) (And relate it back to the front crawl?) Density The term specific gravity is used to describe the ratio between an object's density to that of water's density. Pure water density being the reference point having a specific gravity of 1.00 (Carr, 1997, p67). Therefore anything placed in water will float or sink in accordance to it's own specific gravity value. Anything greater than 1.00, will sink. While anything less than 1.00 will float. In the human body there is variation from person to person, this is due to the amount of air in ones lungs and the percentage of bone, muscle and fat, which all vary in their own individual masses. Both bone and muscle are heavier than fat. From this information one can assume that a lean and

Free Essays on Asian Rain Forest Deforestation

Deforestation in Asia and the Effects on the Environment and its Peoples† Today, the logging and rate of deforestation of Asian forests is at an all time high. National governments are making a profit from the logging rights to the forests but it is at the expense of the indigenous peoples of the areas. Unless there is an immediate change in this, there will be no way of saving the forests for future generations and the indigenous peoples will lose the way of life they have grown accustomed to. â€Å"The term â€Å"indigenous† has come to be applied to a politically marginalized, territorially based ethnic groups, who are culturally distinct from the majority populations of the nation states in which they have now found themselves, and who recognize themselves as indigenous† (Minority Rights Group International). Today, the Asia-Pacific region has lost over half of its original forest cover and there are no signs of that rate declining. Most of the Asian national governments have sided with the logging companies and sold parts of the forests to them. Not only are the forests being ruined, but the indigenous peoples are being run out of their homes. The indigenous peoples are dependent on the forests and they need them to sustain their lifestyles. The land on which they live is the same land where their ancestors lived. These ancestral territories are not only their economic base, they are also intimately bound up with their cosmologies and identities and comm unities as peoples. The indigenous peoples see themselves as stewards holding the land of their ancestors in trust for future generations. By cutting down the trees in their areas, it would force the indigenous peoples out of their areas and eventually force them to change their way of life. None of this seems to matter to the national governments of Asia or the loggers. They are more interested in their own well being rather than preserving the historical cultures and socie... Free Essays on Asian Rain Forest Deforestation Free Essays on Asian Rain Forest Deforestation Deforestation in Asia and the Effects on the Environment and its Peoples† Today, the logging and rate of deforestation of Asian forests is at an all time high. National governments are making a profit from the logging rights to the forests but it is at the expense of the indigenous peoples of the areas. Unless there is an immediate change in this, there will be no way of saving the forests for future generations and the indigenous peoples will lose the way of life they have grown accustomed to. â€Å"The term â€Å"indigenous† has come to be applied to a politically marginalized, territorially based ethnic groups, who are culturally distinct from the majority populations of the nation states in which they have now found themselves, and who recognize themselves as indigenous† (Minority Rights Group International). Today, the Asia-Pacific region has lost over half of its original forest cover and there are no signs of that rate declining. Most of the Asian national governments have sided with the logging companies and sold parts of the forests to them. Not only are the forests being ruined, but the indigenous peoples are being run out of their homes. The indigenous peoples are dependent on the forests and they need them to sustain their lifestyles. The land on which they live is the same land where their ancestors lived. These ancestral territories are not only their economic base, they are also intimately bound up with their cosmologies and identities and comm unities as peoples. The indigenous peoples see themselves as stewards holding the land of their ancestors in trust for future generations. By cutting down the trees in their areas, it would force the indigenous peoples out of their areas and eventually force them to change their way of life. None of this seems to matter to the national governments of Asia or the loggers. They are more interested in their own well being rather than preserving the historical cultures and socie...

Letter to parliament Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Letter to parliament - Essay Example This however does mean its policies are perfect in regard to meeting social needs. This discussion focuses on the various ways by, which United States’ social and Health policy has been ineffective the Comparing it with Canadian Social and Health Policy. It suggests ways through which its standards can be raised to favour the entire society. Recommendation are thereby given and conclusion as to introduction of new policies into the industry to facilitative it efficient and smooth running while reducing costs are highlighted. Background Understanding Canada's Medicare Debate Medicare including social care in Canada is a success story. Not to the perfection, but good enough to be admired by better part of the world. Canadians therefore receive high standard healthcare whenever they need it as there are no financial constrains or any other obstacles, therefore they take the care for granted. In comparison with everything that happens in USA, they get surprised yet pleased to real ize they have a well-designed health program that delivers better results and care, to a huge population, and a considerably lower cost than in the USA. Faced with these realities, media and policy makers have come up with a predictable conclusion: Canadian healthcare is in a deep crisis, probably in deathbed. Collapse of health sector has been predicted and urgent overhaul is needed to bring it back to track. High care debate has become a philosophical battle ground, in which predetermined economic and political assumptions are more evidential and where tale is received as a fact. Considerations Out of Control Costs Reality: Health care expenses are under very tight control, to a point where spending in a pubic funded health facility isn’t keen on keeping track with the population growth rate. Being a percentage of Gross National Product, spending on health care has leveled at approximately 9%.Healthcare became national program in 1971, when the proportion of GNP rose to 9 % from 7.5%.This rising share going to health care in 1980’s was not as a result of spiraling costs but due to shrinking economy and started at the introduction of free trade agreements .If the GNP did not slump then, the spending on healthcare would still be at 7% just like they did in 1971. While discussing costs on healthcare, it’s crucial to put on mind that spending on health in public sector accounts for 72%.The costs are rapidly growing in private sector unlike the public sector e.g. dental services and drugs. Instituting user fees and abolishing free system Reality: It’s illogical to say that if costs are too high, the solution is to further raise them. To the contrary user fees do not reducing rather it increases costs. Premium insurance, taxes or user fees the money is dug from the same pocket. The actual advantage to the advocates of user fees is that they discourage the poor from seeking the medical care. Ones the poor is denied care, the rich can the n avoid assisting to cater for their care. In 1970’s under the Liberals, Saskatchewan introduced the fee which saw the poor shy ff from seeking the care, physician visits by the poor decreased by 18%.Inspite of this, the overall costs rose, due to changes in mix services and utilization patterns. Actually the doctors maintained their salaries by encouraging the high income patients to make more visits and take more tests. At the end of it, more was being spent while providing care to fewer people. Health care Cost

Business Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Finance - Essay Example the society whose sole levers and gears are the different types of business and its organisations that are generating these revenues at a higher interest. But it is to remember that money multiplies money; and then who is sourcing these revenue generating businesses to expand their own operations and other developments. This paper will through light on the sourcing and the using issues of the finance and the business finance respectively. The field of finance refers to the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are interrelated. The term finance may thus incorporate any of the following studies; like the study of money and other assets, the management and control of those assets, profiling and managing project risks, the science of managing money, the industry that delivers financial services. As a verb, "to finance" is to provide funds for business or for an individuals purchases it becomes the act of lending money to a party to meet its requirements. Though the financer receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the financer receives and the financial intermediary that is the financer itself pockets the difference (Jones 2002). This is the simple structure of financing and the glory of this business. A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public. Finance is used by individuals and creates personal finance, by governments as public finance, by businesses that is the corporate finance and as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments, with consideration to their institutional setting (Beaney 2005). This is where the finance plays the role of a resource. Finance is one of the most important aspects of any business management. Without proper financial

Widening a Bridge called Wonboyn River bridge Assignment

Widening a Bridge called Wonboyn River bridge - Assignment Example There will be the risk of the bridge construction falling. The transportation has to wait for the dry season for the slabs to pass through dry ground. The components of the bridge at this point require minimum tension until the slabs are laid and until they dry up. Alternatively, the constructors can transport the slabs across the river through the old pier. The pier is strong and can support the movement of all equipment and construction materials. If they must be transported across the river, then there must be large stable boats to carry them across the flowing river. Figure 1: Under bridge support 1.1. Safety of the transport The weights of the slabs have to be controlled so that the boat cannot capsize in the water. At the same time, the strength of the slabs and the shape has to remain intact. In the decision to pass the slabs through the old pier, the construction company can use larger stronger transport means such as Lorries. However, the construction company will have to ac quire a crane to enable them lift the heavy slabs during the actual laying of the slabs and the accompanying concrete. The progress of the construction cannot be interfered with by the transportation of then materials. The two processes can move on concurrently. The transportation of the slabs has to take care of other road users because the old bridge and the old pier are the only remaining alternative channels of transportation (Mecanismo, 2011). The weight of the post-tensioned slabs is a critical factor to consider when deciding on the means of transport. 1.2. Inspection After boring the piles, they are then left freely and out of the water, the site engineer inspects the progress and makes the plan for anchoring the structure. The anchors serve the function of reaching thee layer of shale on the Wonboyn River Bridge. It also provides tensile strength to support the piles of slabs and the structure above them. The anchors are made up of rock bolts. They are fixed in place before the concrete is added on the piles. 2. Fixing post-tensioned slabs to piers with dowel 2.1. Factors to consider The process of fixing the post-tensioned slabs is a heavy activity, which requires heavy equipment. The project managers must allocate the points at which the crane will be stationed such that the slabs will be able to reach both the pier and the dowel. The construction project heavily depends on the slabs because their lengths imply that they will have to hold the entire weight of the passing bodies. The project managers and the engineers have the mandate to select the regions their priority, which they have to report to the governing bodies controlling of the water resource management, electricity supply, gas supply and the provision of communications services. 2.2. Alternative routes for diversion During this construction phase, the road users have to seek alternative routes to avoid the pier and give enough space for the laying of the post tensioned slabs. This ensure s that there is no risk of miscalculating the position of the pier and the dowel by the engineers. They have to be aware of the impact of the services which they offer contact to the environment and the quality that is expected of the bridge. This process can consume around one month if all conditions are favorable. Figure 2: Support Structure of the bridge The activity that is most likely to follow it is the laying of bitumen and leveling the road. This can commence about two months later to provide adequate time for the post tensioned slabs to dry up. Incidentally, there is no mechanism of testing how strong the construction is when it is complete. The only test in this context is the actual usage of the road and that essentially means the road has

Stop and search, and the Human Rights Act

Stop and search, and the Human Rights Act PART A The power of stop and search is a general term used to describe the powers of police or occasionally the officials to search the members of public in a various context without a warrant.[1] Such powers are governed primarily under Part 1 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE). [2] Besides PACE 1984, there are other legislation which governs the power of stop and search. For example, s23 of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971[3], s60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (CJPOA)[4] and s47A of the Terrorism Act 2000 (TACT)[5]. The power of stop and search under TACT were previously governed under s44, but were ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights, stating that the power were too widely drawn and open to abuse.[6] S44 were than formally replaced with s47A by the Terrorism Act 2000 (Remedial) Order 2011[7] on the 18 March 2011, by more limited measures in England, Wales and Scotland. All legislations which governs police power of stop and search similarl y aim to prevent and deter crimes, however, there is still some difference in the regulations of such powers, between Part 1 of the PACE 1984 and s47A of the TACT 2000. Statistic showed that approximately 1.1 million stops and searches are recorded under Section 1 of the PACE 1984, in the year of 2011/2012. [8] No searches were made by the police in 2011/12 or 2012/13 in Great Britain under s47A of TACT.[9] A low detection rate alone does not necessarily undermine the use of stop and search powers. Proponents of the power, especially under terrorism legislation, argue that its use disrupts and deters criminal activity rather than simply detecting it.[10] The first and utmost obvious difference in the powers of stop and search in relation to both PACE 1984 and TACT 2000 are that both legislation have different aim of search. Part 1 of the PACE 1984 provides power to stop and search for a range of items including stolen property, offensive weapons, prohibited articles under s1(7) PACE, controlled drugs or evidence that a person is a terrorist.[11] Whereas, powers under TACT 2000 were to search for evidence of terrorism. An officer exercising the stop and search powers may only do so for the purpose of searching for evidence that the person concerned is a terrorist or that the vehicle concerned is being use for the purposes of terrorism, as opposed to the purpose under section 45(1)[12] of searching for articles of a kind which could be used in connection with terrorism. [13]. The meaning of terrorists are defined under section 40(1) (b) of the 2000 Act. In addition, the regulation of the power of stop and search are different in terms of the powers where exercisable. Under Part 1 of the PACE, the power of stop and search may be exercise by constable at any time, but only in public places, and non-dwelling places to which the public have ready access.[14] This includes public transport, museums, sports ground, cinemas, pubs, restaurants, night club, banks and shops. Whilst power of stop and search under S47A only allows a constable with uniform to search at a specific area for a defined period [15]with authorisation by an officer of ACPO rank who reasonably suspects that an act of terrorism will take place.[16] Next, the difference of regulations of both PACE and TACT in the power of stop and search by the police are the matter of authorisation. Under Part1 of the PACE, the constable are allow to conduct searches as long as they are having the reasonable ground of suspicion that relevant offences will be found. [17] There are no mention of needing authorisation by officer of a higher ranking before conducting stop and search unlike S47A of TACT. Under this section, authorisation by a senior police officer are essential before stop and search could be conduct by any constable in uniform. [18]Authorisation will only be given if an officer reasonably suspect that an act of terrorism will take place[19] and consider that the authorisation is crucial to prevent such an act and that the areas or places specified in the authorisation are no greater than is necessary and the duration[20] of the authorisation is no longer than is necessary to prevent such an act. The requirement for an authorisation are given in the Code of Practice[21] where an authorisation under section 47A may only be made by an officer of ACPO or ACPOS rank. The authorisation would include details of how the exercise of the powers is necessary to prevent the act of terrorism.[22] In most statutory provisions including PACE which grants police the power to stop and search, there is a requirement that the police must have a reasonable ground of suspicion that the person is in possession of an item of a specified kind. [23] Although there was no definition of reasonable ground of suspicion laid down in the legislation, Code of Practice A, under PACE had provided some sort of guideline as to what constitute reasonable suspicion. Para 2.2 explained that reasonable grounds for suspicion will depend on the nature in each case. [24] There must be some objective basis for that suspicion based on facts, information and/or intelligence that are relevant to the likelihood of finding an article of a certain kind.[25] Reasonable suspicion can never be supported on the basis of personal factors. Officers must rely on intelligence or information about or some specific behaviour by the person concerned.[26] For example the nature of the articles suspected of being carried, th e time and place where the person or vehicle is or the behaviour of the person suspected. The case of Howarth v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis (2011)[27] explained that reasonable cause for suspicion is a lower standard that which would be required to establish a prima facie case.[28] It allows police officer to take into account matter that would not be admissible as evidence. In comparison, the power conferred under S47A TACT 2000 can be exercised without reasonable suspicion. An authorisation by a senior police officer allows searches by any constable in uniform in specified areas or places without reasonable suspicion to find evidence related to terrorism. The authorisation would provide explanation which allows stopping and searching of individuals and/or vehicles without suspicion is necessary to prevent the suspected act of terrorism.[29] To conclude, although both PACE and TACT have different regulations in terms of the power of stop and search, however what remains the same is that the underlying principles of stop and search are intended to promote its use in a fair and effective manner. An officer may not search a person where there is no legal basis to do so, even with an individual’s consent. Stop and search must be done in a courteous and respectful manner and the length of detainment must be kept to a minimum even when the officer is lawfully entitled to search a person of vehicle. [30] PART B The Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) came into force in the United Kingdom in October 2000. [31]This legislation gives effect in the UK to certain fundamental rights and freedoms contained in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Under section 6 of the Human Rights Act 1998, public bodies such as the court, police, local council and all other bodies carrying out the public functions must comply with the Convention rights. This means, individuals can now take human rights cases in domestic courts and they no longer have to go to Strasbourg to argue their case in the European Court of Human Rights.[32] With the HRA 1998 coming into force, the power of stop and search had made some impact on the regulation and use of the power of stop and search in some way. In relation to the use of power of stop and search, public bodies are required to exercise such power in compliance to the convention rights. The legal framework for protecting the fundamental human rights contained in the HRA 1998 allows the public to rely on the articles when they are being stopped and searched. When powers of stop and searched are exercise, the public bodies are required to exercise it in such a way that it is necessary and proportionate. [33]Article 5, 8 and 14 of the HRA 1998 would be more relevant in the matter of stop and search. Article 5 ensures the right to liberty and security of person. [34]The right in Article 5 is limited, which means that there are certain circumstances or situation where deprivation of liberty is lawful.[35] Article 8 protects people from arbitrary interference in their private and family right. [36] The act of being subject to a search, which may take place in public, and may include a search of a person, their clothing or personal b elongings will interfere with Article 8 rights. Article 8 is a qualified right, and Article 8(2) provides exceptions enabling interference with the right, for example in the interests of national security, or the prevention of crime.[37] Any interference with a person’s Article 8 rights will need to come within one of the exceptions allowed under Article 8(2), and be in accordance with the law, necessary and proportionate. In addition, Article 14[38] allows people to enjoy the Convention rights without any discrimination. In another words, individual must not be stopped or searched purely because of their race or religion. The power of stop and search would only be compatible with human rights if they are used legitimately and proportionately.[39] Evidence shows that stop and search powers that do not require reasonable suspicion, as well as those under PACE, may be used in a way that is discriminatory because certain ethnic communities are more likely to experience stop and search than others. However, the black and minority ethnic groups, particularly the black people, have for many years been disproportionately at the receiving end of police stop and search. Joel Miller in his article ‘Stop and Search in England, A Reformed Tactic or Business As Usual?’ suggested that the treatment towards the black and the minority had always been discriminatory. This is evident in surveys such as the Smith and Gray 1985, Willis 1983, Young 1994, and others. [40]The government statistics particularly from the Ministry of Justice 2009 had suggest that the black people in England and Wales in the year of 2007/2008 are more likely to be searched eight times more than white people and Asian people more than twice, for searches which requires reasonable ground of suspicion.[41] The power of stop and search under Terrorism Act 2000 were previously governed under s44, but were ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights in the case of Gillan and Quinton v United Kingdom[42]. After the incident of 911, the Home Secretary and senior police officers established the practice of making authorisations continually under section 44 to cover the whole of metropolitan London.[43] The police justified their act by claiming that there was now a generalised threat of terrorism in London and it was likely to manifest in any large-scale public gathering, and that it would be impractical to make narrower. In this case, Kevin Gillan and Pennie Quinton were attending a demonstration in London in the year of 2003. Both of them were stopped and searched by the police under S44 Terrorism Act 2000. They subsequently brought a judicial review regarding the power of stop and search on the basis that there was no evidence of terrorism showed by the protestor on that day. They claimed that the stop and search was an interference with their rights to liberty, respect for privacy, and the right to freedom of expression and assembly. [44]In March 2006, the House of Lords heard Gillan and Quintons appeal against the refusal of the lower courts to allow their claim. Lord Bingham and his fellow Law Lords ruled that section 44 was itself compatible with Convention rights, there were sufficient safeguards against arbitrary use of the power, and that there was no evidence that the section 44 power had been exercised unlawfully. [45] Gillan and Quinton took their complaints further to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. In January 2009, the Court ruled that the searches under section 44 had violated their right to respect for their private life under article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). [46] As a result of a legal challenge made by the European Court of Human Rights, and as a part of the UK government’s commitment to introduce safeguards against the misuse of powers under TACT, the Home Secretary conducted a review of these powers.[47] One of the recommendations of the review was that stop and search powers under section 44 of TACT should be repealed and replaced with a much more targeted and proportionate power. [48] The Home Secretary therefore made a remedial order under section 10 [49] of the Human Rights Act 1998 to make immediate changes to the legislation. This new power came into force on 18 March 2011.[50] Section 47A of TACT allows the police to stop and search persons in order to prevent acts of terrorism, without reasonable suspicion of their involvement in terrorism. Searches under this power may only be authorised in a specific area for a defined period where the police reasonably suspect an act of terrorism will take place.[51] Stop and search powers provided under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE), the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the Firearms Act 1968 [52] and the Road Traffic Act 1988 [53]all require a reasonable suspicion that the person stopped is in possession of prohibited goods or has committed an offence.[54] By contrast, stop and search powers provided under section 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 and section 47A do not require any grounds of reasonable suspicion. Although S47A can be said as an improvement of the previous law, however the power of stop and search without reasonable suspicion had always been an issue. Many are in the view that such power of stop and search without the need of reasonable suspicion is inherently incompatible with the Convention. [55]The justification is that the lack of any requirement for reasonable suspicion renders selection for stop and search arbitrary and invites discrimination in the exercise of the power.[56] Rabinder Singh QC, Professor Aileen McColgan and the Human Rights Watch are in the view that the nature of stop and search without the need for reasonable suspicion is incompatible with right to respect for private and family life under Article 8 of HRA 1998.[57] In their view, even with the best guidance to officers as to how to exercise the power, cannot be rendered compatible with Convention rights because of the irreducible arbitrariness of the selection of individuals to subject to the power.[58] In Human Rights Watchs view, the only human rights compatible power to stop and search is one which requires reasonable suspicion. The Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC) itself, however, does not appear to share this view that a power to stop and search without reasonable suspicion is inherently incompatible with Article 8 and other Convention rights. [59]In its submission, it recognises that there may be very exceptional circumstances in which it is necessary for there to be a power to stop and search without reasonable suspicion ,for instance to prevent a real and immediate act of terrorism or to search for perpetrators or weapons following a serious incident. [60] In terms of the protection under the power of stop and search, any individual who were searched unlawfully may seek a remedy under the Human Rights Act 1998 for an unjustifiable breach of their rights to liberty, respect for private life or to be free from discrimination. [61] All in all, the Human Rights Act 1998 had made some significant impact on regulations and use of the power to stop and search by the public bodies. It is safe to argue that the law in terms of the stop and search power had improved significantly, particularly S47A TACT 2000, which minimize the abuse of power and act in compliance with the Convention rights. With the legislation coming into force, it does not only provide guidelines to the authorities, it also provides momentous protection to the public when the power to stop and search are exercise on them. In any circumstances which the public authorities abuse or misuse the power to stop and search, judicial review would be a mechanism to hold them into account. It was suggested that, when there is misuse of power, judicial review offers the public a relatively quick, effective and inexpensive means of securing their rights through scrutiny of the lawfulness of police action by a specialist judge. [62]The bases on which it can be a rgued that the police have acted unlawfully were importantly expanded by the enactment of the Human Rights Act (HRA) 1998. [1] ‘Stop and search under the Terrorism Act 2000’ (Justice) http://www.justice.org.uk/pages/stop-and-search-under-the-terrorism-act-2000.html accessed 17 November 2014 [2] Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 [3] Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 [4] Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 [5] Terrorism Act 2000 (TACT) [6] Adam Wagner, ‘Stop and search powers under review as European Court reject UK appeal ‘ ( UK Human Rights Blog, 1 July 2010) http://ukhumanrightsblog.com/2010/07/01/stop-and-search-powers-under-review-as-european-court-reject-uk-appeal/ accessed 28 November 2014 [7] Terrorism Act 2000 (Remedial) Order 2011 [8] Home Office, ‘Statistics national statistics Police powers and procedures England and Wales 2011/12’ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/police-powers-and-procedures-in-england-and-wales-201112/police-powers-and-procedures-in-england-and-wales-2011-12#stops-and-searches [9] ‘Statistics Operation of police powers under the Terrorism Act 2000 and subsequent legislation: Arrests, outcomes and stop and searches, Great Britain, 2012 to 2013’ (Home Office, 12 September 2013) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/operation-of-police-powers-under-the-terrorism-act-2000-2012-to-2013/operation-of-police-powers-under-the-terrorism-act-2000-and-subsequent-legislation-arrests-outcomes-and-stop-and-searches-great-britain-2012-to-20 accessed 20 November 2014 [10] Pat Strickland, ‘Stop and Search’ ( House of Commons Library , 23 January 2014) [11] Part 1 of Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, particularly s2, s7,s8 [12] S45(1) Terrorism Act 2000 [13]‘Does the Order remove the incompatibility?’ (Terrorism Act 2000 (Remedial) Order 2011: Stop and Search without Reasonable Suspicion Human Rights Joint Committee) http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/jt201012/jtselect/jtrights/155/15506.htm accessed 27 November 2014 [14] S4 , s5 PACE [15]Duration: The maximum period for an authorisation is 14 days. [16] Code of Practice under Terrorism Act 2000 [17] s1(3) PACE [18] Code of Practice under Terrorism Act [19] Kiron Reid, ‘Stop and Search’ (24 September 2014) [20] The maximum period for an authorisation is 14 days. [21] Code Of Practice (England, Wales And Scotland) For The Authorisation And Exercise Of Stop And Search Powers Relating To Section 47a Of Schedule 6b To The Terrorism Act 2000 [22] ‘Consultation Code Of Practice (Northern Ireland) For The Authorisation And Exercise Of Stop And Search Powers Relating To Sections 43, 43a And 47a Of The Terrorism Act 2000’ (Northern Ireland office, Febuary 2012) https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/136403/consultation_on_the_code_of_practice_for_stop_and_search_powers_under_the_.pdf accessed 25 November 2014 [23] S1(3) PAC 1984 [24] Code of Practice, para 2.2 PACE [25] Andrew Sander, Richard Young and Mandy Burton , Criminal Justice( 4th edn, Oxford University Press,2010) 84 [26] ‘Stop and search QAs’ (Policy Pages, 21 August 2014) http://www.met.police.uk/foi/pdfs/priorities_and_how_we_are_doing/corporate/stop_search_qa_august2014.pdf accessed 25 November 2014 [27] Howarth v Commissioner of Policeof Police of the Metropolis[2011] EWHC 2818 [28] Andrew Sander, Richard Young and Mandy Burton , Criminal Justice ( 4th edn, Oxford University Press,2010) 157 [29] Code of Practice under Terrorism Act 2000 [30] Avon and Somerset Constabulary, ‘Stop and Search’ www.bathnes.gov.uk/sites/default/files/stop_search_notes.doc accessed 24 November 2014 [31] Equality and Human Rights Commission, ‘ The Human Rights Act’ http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/your-rights/human-rights/what-are-human-rights/human-rights-act accessed 22 November 2014 [32] Equality and Human Rights Commission, ‘ The Human Rights Act’ http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/your-rights/human-rights/what-are-human-rights/human-rights-act accessed 22 November 2014 [33] ‘Article 8 : The right to respect for private and family life, home and correspondence’ ( Human Rights Review 2012) http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/documents/humanrights/hrr_article_8.pdf accessed 24 November 2014 [34] Article 5 HRA 1998 [35] Article 5 : The right to respect for private and family life, home and correspondence’ ( Human Rights Review 2012) http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/documents/humanrights/hrr_article_5.pdf accessed 24 November 2014 [36] Article 8 HRA 1998 [37] Article 8 : The right to respect for private and family life, home and correspondence’ ( Human Rights Review 2012) http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/documents/humanrights/hrr_article_8.pdf accessed 24 November 2014 [38] Article 14 HRA 1998 [39] ‘Human Rights Thematic Review on the use of police powers to stop and search and stop and question under the Terrorism Act 2000 and the Justice and Security (NI) Act 2007’ (Northen Ireland policing Board) http://www.nipolicingboard.org.uk/stop_and_search_thematic_review__final_draft__15_october_2013.pdf accessed 24 November 2014 [40] Joel Miller, ‘Stop and Search in England, A Reformed Tactic or Business As Usual?’ (2010) 50 British Journal of Criminology 954 [41] Ben Bowling and Coretta Phillips, ‘Disproportionate and Discriminatory: Reviewing the Evidence on Police Stop and Search’ ( Modern Law Review,2007) http://www.stop-watch.org/uploads/documents/modern_law_review.pdf accessed 27 November 2014 [42] Gillan and Quinton v. UK 4158/05 [2010] ECHR 28

The Status of Women in the Work Force After the Fall of Communism in Ea

The Status of Women in the Work Force After the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe The fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union marked the end of an era in which official ideology and state policy often masked the reality of citizens' lives. This contradiction was particularly acute for women, a group that the Soviet model of communism was intended to emancipate (Basu, 1995; Bystydzienski, 1992; Corrin, 1992; Einhorn, 1993; Millarand and Wolchik, 1994; Nelson and Chowdhury, 1994; Rueshchemeyer, 1994). Under the guise of Marxist-Leninist ideology, women were accorded an equal right to work and to participate in the building of socialism. The Soviet model, which was imposed to a greater or lesser extent on all of the Eastern European countries, was meant to embody this precept. In order to mobilize women into the work force, the party-state provided numerous social programs--free day care, subsidized school supplies and clothing, guaranteed maternity leave, and nearly full employment. Women, however, were hardly emancipated through these programs. They were concentrated, with a few notable exceptions, in a "pink collar ghetto" of low wage and low prestige jobs and often given employment well below their educational qualifications. Moreover, the "emancipation" accorded them by state officials resulted in an extreme "double burden" (Basu, 1995; Bystydzienski, 1992; Corrin, 1992; Einhorn, 1993; Millarand and Wolchik, 1994; Nelson and Chowdhury, 1994; Rueschemeyer, 1994). They were expected to perform both paid and domestic labor, fulfilling most (or all) of the household and parenting duties without modern conveniences. These superwomen worked full-time jobs and then came home to prepare meals and clean... ... Lijphart, Arend. "Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method." American Political Science Review. 65 (1971): 682-693. Millarand, James and Wolchik, Sharon, eds. The Social Legacy of Communism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Nelson, Barbara and Chowdhury, Najma, eds. Women and Politics Worldwide. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. Przeworski, Adam and (?) Teune. The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry. New York: John Wiley Sons, 1970. Rueschemeyer, Marilyn, ed. Women in the Politics of Post-communist Eastern Europe. New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.,1994 Scheppele, Kim Lane. "Women's Rights in Eastern Europe." East European Constitutional Review. Winter 1995. Slay, Ben. "Rapid versus Gradual Economic Transition" Economics. August 1994. United Nations Statistical Yearbook, 39th Edition. 1994. "Statistical Abstract" 1994.